Tài chính doanh nghiệp - Chapter 11: Commercial Banks, Major Corporations, and Federal Credit Agencies in the Money Market

Chapter 11Commercial Banks, Major Corporations, and Federal Credit Agencies in the Money Market Learning Objectives To discover how banks and other depository institutions borrow and lend funds and supply other critical services in the money market.To explore the nature and characteristics of commercial papers as well as the roles played by large corporations in the money market.To learn how federal credit agencies provide financial aid to certain sectors of the economy. Learning Objectives To see internationalization at work in the money market. IntroductionThe money market supplies the cash needs of short-term borrowers and provides savers who hold temporary cash surpluses with an interest-bearing outlet for their funds.In this chapter, we will explore how commercial banks, major corporations, and government-sponsored credit agencies contribute to the global money market.The Roles Played by Banks in the Money MarketPrincipal channel for payments for loans, securities & other transactionsBanks’ Money Market RolesAgents in trust for property management on behalf of bank customersDirect lenders to money market borrowersGuarantors of performance & paymentChannel for government money & credit policyCustody agents for safekeeping securities owned by market participants and pledged as collateral for loansFederal Funds Provided by the Banking SystemFederal funds are any monies available for immediate payment (i.e. same-day money).They are generally transferred from one depository institution to another by simple bookkeeping entries requested via an on-line computer system, by wire, or by telephone.Federal funds are the principal means of making payments in the money market.Federal Funds Provided by the Banking SystemThe term federal funds came about because early in the development of the market, the principal source of immediately-available money was the reserve balance that each Federal Reserve System member bank had to keep at the Federal Reserve bank in its region.Today, the federal funds market is broader in scope – some deposits with commercial banks are also available for immediate transfer.Federal Funds Provided by the Banking SystemBanks and other depository institutions must hold in a special legal reserve account liquid assets equal to a fraction of the funds deposited with them by the public.This legal reserve requirement is calculated on a daily average basis over a two-week period, known as the reserve computation period.The federal funds market is an indispensable tool for such daily reserve management.Federal Funds Provided by the Banking SystemThere are three principal segments of the Fed funds market among banks today:brokered fundsnonbrokered direct loans among major bankscorrespondent rebookings, where smaller banks loan their excess reserves through the deposits they hold at large correspondent banks in money centersFederal Funds Provided by the Banking SystemCommercial banks borrow billions of dollars each day in the federal funds market.Most federal funds loans are either overnight transactions or continuing contracts that have no specific maturity and that can be terminated without advance notice by either party.One-day loans carry a fixed rate of interest, but continuing contracts often do not.Interest Rates on Federal FundsFederal Funds Provided by the Banking SystemBeginning 1989, the Federal Reserve has routinely set target levels for the federal funds rate, and raised or lowered those targets depending on whether it wishes to slow down borrowing and spending in the economy or speed them up.Through daily open market operations (buying and selling securities), the Fed is able to push the funds rate in the desired direction.Intended Federal Funds RateSource: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System%Intended Federal Funds RateActual Federal Funds RateNegotiable Certificates of DepositA certificate of deposit (CD) is an interest-bearing receipt for funds left with a depository institution for a set period of time.True money market CDs are negotiable CDs that may be sold any number of times before maturity and that carry a minimum denomination of $100,000.They were introduced in 1961 to attract lost deposits back into the banking system.Negotiable Certificates of DepositCD interest rates are computed as a yield to maturity (ytm) on a 360-day basis. Interest = term in days  deposit  promised income 360 principal ytmIn secondary market trading, the bank discount rate (DR) is used as a measure of CD yields.DR = Par value – Purchase price  360 . Par value days to maturityKey Money Market Interest RatesNegotiable Certificates of DepositThe principal buyers of negotiable CDs include corporations, state and local governments, foreign central banks and governments, wealthy individuals, and a variety of financial institutions.Most buyers hold CDs until they mature. However, prime-rate CDs are actively traded in the secondary market. Negotiable Certificates of DepositBankers are becoming increasingly innovative in packaging CDs to meet the needs of customers.New types of CDs include variable-rate CDs, rollover or rolypoly CDs, jumbo CDs, Yankee CDs, brokered CDs, bear and bull CDs, installment CDs, rising-rate CDs, and foreign index CDs.Eurocurrency DepositsThe Eurocurrency market has arisen because of the tremendous need worldwide for funds denominated in dollars, Euros, pounds, and other relatively stable currencies.The Eurocurrency market represents the largest of all money markets worldwide, with total funds probably in excess of $4 trillion.Eurocurrency DepositsEurodollars are deposits of U.S. dollars in banks located outside the U.S. The large majority of Eurodollar deposits are held in Europe, although Europe’s share of the total is declining.Eurocurrency DepositsEurodollars and other Eurocurrency deposits are continually on the move in the form of loans.They are employed to finance the import and export of goods, to supplement government tax revenues, to provide working capital for the foreign operations of multinational corporations, and to provide liquid reserves for the largest banks.Eurocurrency DepositsWhen a dollar deposit is moved to a bank located outside the U.S., that bank then holds claim to the original dollar deposit in the U.S.When a Eurodollar loan is made, the borrower receives a claim against dollars deposited in U.S. banks.Funds are merely passed from one U.S. bank to another. The total amount of dollar deposits and U.S. bank reserves remains unchanged.Eurocurrency DepositsSuppose a French exporter of fine wines ships cases of champagne to a New York importer, accompanied by a bill for $1 million.Eurocurrency DepositsThe French exporter is offered an attractive rate of return on its dollar deposit by its own local bank in Paris and decides to move the dollar deposit there.Eurocurrency DepositsThe Paris bank then makes a loan of $1 million to an oil company based in Manchester, England.Eurocurrency Maturities and RisksMost Eurocurrency deposits are short-term deposits ranging from overnight to one year, although a small percentage are long-term time deposits.Eurocurrency deposits are known to be volatile and highly sensitive to fluctuations in interest rates and currency prices. They also carry political risk and default risk.The Supply of Eurocurrency DepositsEurocurrency deposits come from foreign investmenttourismbalance of payments (trade) settlementsinterbank fundsgovernment fundslarge corporations’ cash balancescentral banks supplying or absorbing funds from the banking systemEurodollars in U.S. Domestic Bank OperationsU.S. banks draw heavily on overnight Eurodollar deposits as a means of adjusting their domestic reserve positions.Eurodollars usually carry higher reported interest rates than many other sources of bank reserves. However, there are fewer legal restrictions on the borrowing of Eurodollars.U.S. banks also aid their customers in acquiring Eurocurrency deposits and loans.Eurodollars in U.S. Domestic Bank OperationsEurodollar loan rates extended by major international banks and other leading lenders have two components: the cost of acquiring the Eurocurrency deposits (usually measured by the London Interbank Offer Rate (LIBOR) on three- or six-month Eurodeposits); anda profit margin (“spread”) based on the riskiness of the loan and the intensity of competition.Interest Rates on Eurodollar DepositsSource: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System%Recent Innovations in the Eurocurrency MarketsBeginning in the 1980s, the Eurocurrency market witnessed rapid growth in medium-term credit arrangements between international banks and their corporate and governmental customers. These so-called note issuance facilities (NIFs) often span five to seven years and allow the customer to borrow in his or her own name by selling short-term IOUs (typically maturing in three to six months) to investors.Benefits and Costs of the Eurocurrency MarketsBenefitsMakes possible an efficient mobilization of funds around the globe.Encourages international cooperation among nations.Creates a cash-management source to aid the financial operations of corporations and governments around the globe.Benefits and Costs of the Eurocurrency MarketsCostsThe capacity to mobilize massive amounts of funds may contribute to instability in currency values.Monetary and fiscal policies designed to cure domestic economic problems may not achieve their desired impact.Bankers’ AcceptancesA bankers’ acceptance is a time draft drawn on and endorsed by an importer’s bank.Acceptances are used in international trade because most exporters are uncertain of the credit standing of their importers.The issuing bank unconditionally guarantees to pay the face value of the acceptance when it matures, thus shielding exporters and investors in international markets from default risk.Bankers’ AcceptancesBankers’ AcceptancesAcceptances carry maturities ranging from 30 to 270 days, with 90 days being the most common.They are traded among financial institutions, industrial corporations, and securities dealers as a high-quality investment and source of ready cash.How Acceptances AriseImporter applies for line of creditImporter’s bank issues letter of credit in favor of exporterLetter of credit authorizes the drawing of a time draftImporter’s bank accepts time draft from exporter’s bankImporter’s bank pays exporter’s bank discounted value of bankers’ acceptance, and then holds or sells itBankers’ acceptance is redeemed at maturityThe Growth and Decline of Acceptance FinancingThe volume of US$ acceptances outstanding grew rapidly, from less than $400 million in 1950, to slightly more than $7 billion in 1970, and almost $80 billion in 1984.Then the volume declined sharply to $10 billion in 2000, as several leading export nations entered a recession, as economic problems developed in Asia, and as businesses turn to other payment and financing methods.Acceptance RatesAcceptances do not carry a fixed rate of interest, but are sold at a discount in the open market like Treasury bills.The yield on acceptances is usually only slightly higher than the yield on Treasury bills, and close to the negotiable CD rates offered by major banks, because of the high credit quality of the banks that issue the acceptances and CDs.Acceptance RatesSource: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System%Prominent Investors in AcceptancesInvestors in acceptances include banks, industrial corporations, money market mutual funds, local governments, federal agencies, and insurance companies.To many investors, acceptances are a close substitute for Treasury bills, negotiable CDs, or commercial paper in terms of quality, although the acceptance market is far smaller in terms of the volume of trading.Evaluating the Money Market Costs of Funds Needed by BankersA money-center bank needed to borrow $1 million for at least a day. Suppose it calculates its daily cost of funds from various sources as follows:Evaluating the Money Market Costs of Funds Needed by BankersNote that a banker borrowing in the money market must consider not only the level of current money market interest rates but also expected future interest rates as well as government regulations .Bank Activity in the Money MarketIn the 1960s and 1970s, competition forced major corporations to seek out alternative investments for their short-term funds.Bankers thus turned to the money market for additional funds – negotiable CDs appeared and the federal funds market was broadened.Then, as policies were tightened, many bankers turned to the Eurocurrency market and RPs backed by government securities.Bank Activity in the Money MarketAll these clever bank maneuvers form part of a technique called liability management.By varying the daily interest rates offered on CDs and other funds sources, bankers can gain a measure of control over their liabilities.If a bank needs more funds on a given day, the bank can simply offer a higher yield on the particular money market instrument that it desires to use.Commercial PaperCommercial paper consists of short-term, unsecured promissory notes issued by well-known and financially strong companies.Commercial paper is traded mainly in the primary market. Opportunities for resale in the secondary market are more limited.Commercial paper is rated prime, desirable, or satisfactory, depending on the credit standing of the issuing company.Types of Commercial PaperThere are two major types of commercial paper.Direct paper is issued mainly by large finance companies and bank holding companies directly to the investor.Dealer paper, or industrial paper, is issued by security dealers on behalf of their corporate customers (mainly nonfinancial companies and smaller financial companies).Types of Commercial PaperThe Recent Track Record of Commercial PaperVolume of Commercial Paper Outstanding ($ Billions, End of Period)The Recent Track Record of Commercial PaperThe volume of commercial paper has grown rapidly due to its relatively low cost and high quality, as well as the expanding use of credit enhancements.Maturities & Rate of ReturnMaturities of U.S. commercial paper range from three days (“weekend paper”) to nine months. Most commercial paper is issued at a discount from par, and yields to the investor are calculated by the bank discount method, just like Treasury bills.DR = Par value – Purchase price  360 . Par value Days to maturityMarket Yields on Commercial PaperSource: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System%Commercial PaperAdvantagesRelatively low interest ratesFlexible interest rates - choice of dealer or direct paperLarge amounts may be borrowed convenientlyThe ability to issue paper gives considerable leverage when negotiating with banksCommercial PaperCommercial PaperDisadvantagesRisk of alienating banks whose loans may be needed when an emergency developsMay be difficult to raise funds in the paper market at timesCommercial paper must generally remain outstanding until maturity - does not permit early retirement without penaltyWho Buys Commercial Paper?The most important investors in the commercial paper market include nonfinancial corporations, money market mutual funds, bank trust departments, small banks, pension funds, insurance companies, and state and local governments. In effect, this is a market in which corporations borrow from other corporations.Continuing Innovation in the Paper MarketInnovations and extensions of the paper market include:Master note – the investing firm agrees to take some paper each day up to an agreed-upon maximum amountMedium-term notes – 9-month to 10-year notesAsset-backed commercial paper – loans or credit receivables are pooled and paper is then issued as a claim against that pool Commercial Paper Ratings & Dealer OperationsCommercial paper is rated prime, desirable, or satisfactory, depending on the credit standing of the issuing company.Generally, investors prefer notes bearing credit ratings from at least two rating agencies.The market is concentrated among a handful of dealers. Top commercial paper dealers today include Citicorp, the Credit-Suisse-First Boston Corporation, Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, and Merrill Lynch.Credit Agencies in the Money MarketCertain sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, housing, small businesses, and college students, appear to have an unusually difficult time raising funds in the money and capital markets.Beginning in 1916, the U.S. federal government created special agencies to make direct loans or guarantee private loans to these “disadvantaged” borrowers.Credit Agencies in the Money MarketPerforming the Roles of a Financial IntermediaryFederal & government-sponsored credit agenciesBorrowing funds from the open market and from other government agenciesGranting loans to disadvantaged sectorsGuaranteeing loans made by other lendersBuying loans from the secondary marketTypes of Federal Credit AgenciesGovernment-sponsored agencies are federally chartered but privately owned. Their borrowing and lending activities are not reflected in the federal government’s budget.Examples:Federal Farm Credit Banks (FFCB)Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp (Freddie Mac)Student Loan Marketing Association (Sallie Mae)Financing Assistance Corporation (FAC)Types of Federal Credit AgenciesFederal agencies are legally a part of the government structure, and their borrowing and lending activities are included in the federal budget.Examples:Export-Import Bank (EXIM)Farmers Home Administration (FMHA)Government National Mortgage Association (Ginnie Mae)Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)Types of Federal Credit AgenciesGrowth of the Agency Security MarketThe agency market has soared in recent years, with the volume of outstanding securities climbing from about $2 billion during the 1950s to more than $2 trillion today.Agency securities are generally short to medium term in maturity (running out to about 10 years).Growth of the Agency Security MarketThe Marketing of Agency IssuesThe most active buyers of agency securities include banks, state and local governments, government trust funds, and the Federal Reserve System.The Federal Reserve is authorized to conduct open market operations in agency IOUs.Major securities dealers who handle U.S. government securities also generally trade in agency issues.Markets on the NetALM Professional at www.almprofessional.comBank Rate.com at www.bankrate.comBoard of Governors of the Federal Reserve System at www.federalreserve.gov/fomcBritish Bankers Association at www.bba.com.ukBrowse Data of the Federal Reserve Board at www.economagic.com/fedbog.htmMarkets on the NetFederal Reserve Bank of Atlanta at www.frb.atlanta.org/publicaFederal Reserve Bank of New York at www.ny.frb.orgSecurities and Exchange Commission at www.sec.govTreasury Direct at www.Treasurydirect.govChapter ReviewIntroductionThe Roles Played by Banks in the Money MarketChapter ReviewFederal Funds Provided by the Banking SystemThe Nature of Federal Funds and Their UsesUse of the Federal Funds Market to Meet Reserve RequirementsMechanics of Federal Funds TradingVolume of Borrowings in the Funds MarketInterest Rates on Federal FundsFederal Funds and Government Economic PolicyChapter ReviewNegotiable Certificates of Deposit (CDs) Issued by BanksTerms Attached to CDsBuyers of CDsNew Types of CDsChapter ReviewEurocurrency Deposits in International BanksWhat is a Eurodollar?The Creation of Eurocurrency DepositsEurocurrency Maturities and RisksThe Supply of Eurocurrency DepositsEurodollars in U.S. Domestic Bank OperationsRecent Innovations in the Eurocurrency MarketsBenefits and Costs of the Eurocurrency MarketsChapter ReviewBankers’ AcceptancesThe Nature of AcceptancesWhy Acceptances Are Used in International TradeHow Acceptances AriseThe Growth and Decline of Acceptance FinancingAcceptance RatesProminent Investors in AcceptancesChapter ReviewEvaluating the Money Market Costs of Funds Needed by BankersConcluding Comment on Bank Activity in the Money MarketMajor Corporations in the Money Market: Commercial PaperThe Nature of Commercial PaperTypes of Commercial PaperChapter ReviewMajor Corporations in the Money Market: Commercial Paper continuedThe Recent Track Record of Commercial PaperMaturities & Rate of Return on Commercial PaperChanging Yields on Paper IssuesAdvantages & DisadvantagesWho Buys Commercial Paper?Continuing Innovation in the Paper MarketCommercial Paper Ratings and Dealer OperationsChapter ReviewCredit Agencies in the Money MarketTypes of Federal Credit AgenciesGrowth of the Agency Security MarketCharacteristics and the Marketing of Agency Securities