Đề tài An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse

Part I: Introduction 1 Rationale Metaphor, based on the association of similarity, is one of the two basic types of semantic transference that have been an interest for many linguistic researchers. Galperin ( 1981: 139-40) states that the term ‘metaphor’ can be understood as the transference of some quality from one object to another. Metaphor is widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning. In theory, there are at least three communicative functions that metaphor might serve (Ortony 1975). First, they might allow one to express that which is difficult or impossible to express if one is restricted to literal uses of language. Evidence for this "inexpressibility" claim would constitute encouraging support for the necessity-of-metaphors view. A second possible function of metaphors is that they may constitute a particularly compact means of communication. Although conscious experience is continuous in form, the linguistic system we use to talk about it is comprised of discrete elements (lexical items). Unlike more literal forms of language, metaphor may enable us to convey a great deal of information in a succinct manner by obviating the need to isolate the predicates to be expressed into their corresponding lexical representations. Finally, metaphors may help capture the vividness of phenomenal experience. If metaphors convey chunks of information rather than discrete units, they can paint a richer and more detailed picture of our subjective experience than might be expressed by literal language. This we call the "'vividness" claim. In this paper we are interested in the first and last of these possible functions. Thus, we need to examine a discourse domain for which a prima facie case can be made for supposing that literal language will often be inadequate and which lends itself to variations in vividness. There doubtless are many such domains. The one that we selected was that of internal states, in particular, emotional states. The literature on the linguistic expression of emotions suggests a relatively high incidence of figurative language use (Davitz 1969), providing pragmatic reasons for believing that the context of (linguistic) emotional expression may be a profitable one within which to study metaphor production. Emotional states seemed well-suited because they tend to have an elusive, transient quality that is difficult to describe using literal language, although, of course, they can usually be labeled using literal language. Thus, while it might be easy for a person to label an emotional state as, for example, "fear," it is difficult to provide a literal description of the quality of some particular experience of fear. Furthermore, because emotions vary in intensity, one might expect differential levels of vividness. Our thesis is entitled “ An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotions in English poetic disscourse” and focused on William Shakespeares’ sonnets. The choice is based on two reasons. Firstly, recent research states that “Metaphorical modes of expression are characteristic of all adult discourse”. Secondly, as stated above, the literature on the linguistic expression of emotions suggests a relatively high incidence of figurative language use (Davitz 1969). 2 Aims of the study This study aims to investigate the characteristics of metaphor in poetry from a systemic functional perspective. The objective of the study is: To examine the characteristics of metaphor in poetry from the approach of Systemic Functional Linguistics. More details on the aimed objective of the study are discussed in Part 2, chapter 2- Methodology. 3 Scope of the study This study only attempts to explore metaphorical modes of expression of emotions in English poetry discourse and takes William Shakespeares’ sonnets as an illustration due to their available presence in the discourses. Halliday (1994:341) states that: “ lexical selection is just one aspect of lexicogrammatical selection, or wording; and that metaphorical variation is lexicogrammatical rather than simply lexical”; basing on this the study will focus on grammatical metaphor or the way ideas are expressed rather than on words used. 4 Methodology of the study As the thesis sets its main objective of investigating the characteristics of metaphor in English poetry discourse, it is descriptive research which begins with a phenomenon and seeks to describe and explain it. The study was conducted in a deductive approach where data was collected from English literature to describe metaphor as a natural linguistic process. The techniques involved in data analysis are both qualitative and quantitative. The concepts of metaphor and emotion was discussed in systemic functional and cognitive approach respectively, and in comparison with other linguistic views in a linear line of time. The emotion metaphors was retrieved from metaphor dictionaries and corpus data and analyzed with respect to the use of it to convey emotion. Only metaphor that helps conceptualize emotions was studied. 5 Organization of the study The study is composed of three parts. Part 1: Introduction. This part introduces the relevance, the aims, the scope and the methodology of the study. Part 2 : Development. This part consists of two chapters: Chapter 1: Literature review: provided the theoretical background of the study. Its focus was on introducing important concepts relevant to the topic of the thesis. This chapter gave a general picture of metaphor. The notion of emotion and how it is expressed in poetry via metaphor was also taken into consideration. Chapter 2: The study: In this chapter, the research design applied in the study was reported and the results of the study were presented. Part 3 is the conclusion of the study which summarized the issues addressed in the main part and offered implications for teaching and further study. PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW I. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 1 Introduction Language is a systematic resource for expressing meaning in context and linguistics, according to Halliday (1985), is the study of how people exchange meanings through the use of language. This view of language as a system for meaning potential implies that language is not a well defined system, nor a "the set of all grammatical sentences." It also implies that language exists and therefore must be studied in contexts such as professional settings, classrooms, and language tests. This is the key concept expressed in the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics developed by Halliday (1985) and basing on it this chapter is concerned with some of the concepts which set the theoretical background for the study of metaphor. Since a great deal has already been written about the systemic function model, both from practical and theoretical perspective ( Halliday 1994; Halliday & Hasan 1989; Martin 1985, 1992; Matthiessen 1995, Hoang Van Van 1997, Do Tuan Minh 2001 amongst many others) this section will be restricted to a number of key points in the theories that are closely related to the topic of the study- metaphor. Our overview on the systemic functional linguistics is organized around the headings: Language and Social Context, Levels of Context, Levels of Language, Metafunction, Instantiation, Rank and Nominal Group. 2 Language and Social Context Systemic Functional Grammar was established as a linguistic theory by M.A.K. Halliday. It is a theory of language centred around the notion of language function. Halliday argues that it is the social context for communication that regulates the way the semantics of language are employed. He believes that social settings shape the development of language. The form of human language is as it is since it co-evolves with the meanings which co-evolve with the community’s contexts of social interaction. Then, language and social is treated as complementary levels of semiosis related by the concept of realization. We can illustrate the relationship between them by the image of co- tangential circles as in figure 2.1 Social Context Language Extralinguistic levels Linguistic levels Figure 1 : Language as the Realization of Social Context ( Source: Halliday& Martin 1993:25) 3 Levels of Context The interpretation of social context includes two levels of communication: genre (context of culture) and register (context of situation) (Martin 1992: 495). Figure 2 ( Source: http//:wwww.uefap.com/courses/beacc/fsl/intro/htm) The context of culture can be thought of as deriving from a combination of all of the genres which make up a particular culture. Genres are the culturally evolved ways of achieving goals that involve language. They are "staged, goal- oriented social processes" (Martin 1992: 505) in which people engage as members of their culture. They are “social” because we participate in genres with other people; goal-oriented because we use genres to get things done; staged because it usually takes us a few steps to reach our goals" (Martin & Rose 2003: 7-8). Each genre is therefore characterized by a distinctive schematic structure with a clear beginning, middle and end through which the function of the genre is realized. These genres include all of those routines from everyday experience such as purchase of goods (food, clothing etc), to the genres of particular forms of social life including TV interviews, getting arrested etc. They also include genres which are valued in education and business. Lectures are genres, as are seminars and tutorials etc and written genres such as narratives, reports, explanations, procedures, and expositions. These genres have their own distinctive structures (or well-established stages) because of the social purposes they fulfill in the culture in which they are used. They occur in particular situation types and it is the characteristics of this situation type that influence the forms of language that realize the genre. So the context of situation (register) is the second aspect of social context that influences the linguistic realization of the genre. This context of situation of a text has been described by Halliday (Halliday and Hasan 1985: 12) in terms of the variables of Field, Tenor and Mode. + The FIELD OF DISCOURSE concerns what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language is an essential component? + The TENOR OF DISCOURSE concerns who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles: what kinds of role relationships obtain among the participants, including permanent and temporary relationships of one kind or another, both the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationships in which they are involved? + The MODE OF DISCOURSE concerns what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation, the symbolic organisation of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context, including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?) and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive, expository, didactic and the like. Figure 3 Source: http//:wwww.uefap.com/courses/beacc/fsl/intro/htm on 4 Levels of Language While SFL accounts for the syntactic structure of language, it places the function of language as central (what language does, and how it does it), in preference to more structural approaches, which place the elements of language and their combinations as central. SFL starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context. Systemic Functional Grammar divides the language system into four strata: context, semantics, lexico-grammar, and phonology/graphology. As shown in Fig. 2.4, each stratum can be further divided into functional components or functions. Ideational, interpersonal and textual functions of language are considered in the semantic stratum. Here, ideational meaning refers to the way one uses representational tools to compose the idea. In the context stratum for example, functional components are concerned with field (what is going on in the communication), tenor (the social roles and relationships involved) and mode (the medium for communication). Lexico-Grammar is a resource for putting meanings into words, i.e. realizing them as configurations of lexical and grammatical items. It concerns the syntactic organization of words into utterances, involving analysis of the utterance in terms of roles such as Actor, Agent, Medium, Theme, Mood, etc. This gives Martin (1992:496): Figure 4 Source: http//:wwww.uefap.com/courses/beacc/fsl/intro/htm on 5 Metafunctions, rank and the nominal group 5.1 Metafunctions Central to SFL is the use of systems, used to represent the choices present in making an utterance. The three systems related to the three metafunctions are: Transitivity, Theme/Rheme and Mood & Modality. Ideational (experiential and logical) meanings construing Field are realized Lexico-Grammatically by the system of Transitivity. This system interprets and represents our experience of phenomena in the world by describing experiential meanings in terms of participants, processes and circumstances. Interpersonal meanings are realized Lexico-Grammatically by systems of Mood & Modality. The Mood system is the central resource establishing an exchange between interactants by assuming and assigning speech roles such as giving or demanding goods and services or information. Thus the giving of information or goods and services is grammaticalized as declaratives, questions are grammaticalized as interrogatives and commands as imperatives. Textual meanings are concerned with the interaction of interpersonal and ideational information as text in context. Lexico-Grammatically textual meanings are realized by systems of Theme/Rheme. Theme/Rheme selections establish the orientation or angle on the interpersonal and ideational concerns of the clause. Figure 5 Source http//:www.uefap.com/cources/baecc/sfl/intro.htm 5. 2 Rank Rank orders units into a hierarchy according to their constituency relation: the highest-ranking units consist of units of the rank immediately below, these units consist of units at the next rank below, and so on, until we arrive at the units of the lowest rank, which have no internal constituent structure. Rank is thus a theory of the global distribution of the units of the grammar. The English grammatical rank scale recognized by Systemic Functional Grammar is as follows: Unit sentence clause group/ phrase word morpheme In turn, each unit has their own members which are grouped into classes. For example, sentences can be divided into nominal, verbal, adverbial and adjectival groups; noun, verb, adverbs, etc belong to word. The most important unit that functional grammar takes into consideration is clause. Analyzing clause structure means identifying the functional parts of the clause from each of the three different perspectives: ideational, interpersonal and textual. In each metafunction, an analysis of a clause gives a different kind of structure composed from a different set of elements. For example, in the ideational metafunction, a clause is analyzed into the functional parts as the following: clause Circumstance participant Process Circumstance Place in her heart Process has grown Actor a secret love Time Lately Chart 1 : Clause structure- ideational metafunction - four functional parts by Martin, Matthiessen & Painter (1997: 7-8) In textual metafunction, the clause is analyzed as Theme and Rheme. The above example can be illustrated as follows: Clause Theme Lately Rheme a secret love has grown in her heart. Chart 2 : Clause structure- textual metafunction - four functional parts by Martin, Matthiessen & Painter (1997: 7-8) In English Theme is the first element of a clause and providing what we call the departure for the starting point for the clause. By changing Theme we do not change the ideational meaning but the textual meaning. There is the third kind of meaning called interpersonal meaning which is realized by Mood and Residue Clause MOOD RESIDUE Predicator grown Adjunct in her heart Adjunct lately Subject A secret love Finite has Chart 3 : Clause structure- interpersonal metafunction - four functional parts by Martin, Matthiessen & Painter (1997: 7-8) 5. 3 The nominal group The metafunctional organization of the grammar that we illustrated above for the clause applies to the other ranks as well. For example, the nominal group has ideational systems of THING TYPE, CLASSIFICATION, EPITHESIS and QUALIFICATION, interpersonal systems of PERSON and ATTITUDE, and textual systems of DETERMINATION. But the way the metafunctional contributions map structurally one onto another varies; in particular, groups are organized both as organic wholes and as logical complexes. The figure below shows an example of an English nominal group. Table 1: Experiential and logical analysis of the English nominal group The two greatest professional golfers of  all time Deictic Numerative Epithet Classifier Thing Qualifier: Minor process Minor Range . 6 Summary In this chapter we have tried to give an overview of systemic functional linguistics. It is described as a functional- semantic approach to language which explores how language is used in different contexts, and how it is constructed for using as a semiotic system. Language and context are viewed as complementary abstractions, related by the important concept of realization. Context is realized by the content level of language ( semantics and lexico-grammar) and content is given form in the expression level ( phonology or graphology). Then, the semantics level is classified into three metafunctions( experiential, interpersonal and textual) and each of them is related to a specific context or register variable ( field, tenor or mode) which then is realized through one or more of the lexico-grammartical systems ( transitivity, mood or theme). Another notion of SFL is rank- the hierarchical relationship between the various units of language, has also been mentioned . II. METAPHOR: A GENERAL DESCRIPTION 1 Introduction The notion of meaning potential is central to a systemic description of language: there are many things we can mean, and in order to communicate we choose from this range of potential meanings. Therefore, a theory of language must be able to describe both the potential, and the initiation of a choice from that potential. If the relationship between the meaning potential and the realization of a choice was totally random, then language would be impossible to describe and study, and probably useless as a communication tool. Evidently, the relationship is not random. Halliday ( 1994:343) states that “ ... for any selection in meaning there will be a natural sequence of steps leading towards its realization”. 2 Definition of metaphor Traditionally, metaphor has been viewed as poetic or literary language. Nevertheless, in the last few decades, cognitive linguists like, for example, Lakoff and Johnson have revealed that metaphors play an important part in colloquial language and everyday use. Lakoff and Johnson have found that “metaphor is conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature” (1980: 3). Even though not all language is metaphorical, metaphors are indeed an important part of language. (Saeed 2003: 247). So how do we define metaphor? It is taken to be ( as the name suggests in Greek) a transfer of some kind. We will mention some of the definitions of metaphor as follows. A simplified definition is that metaphor is a “mapping of the structure of a source model onto a target model” (Ungerer and Schmid 1999: 120). The source and the target domain of a metaphor belong to two different cognitive domains. To complicate things these belong to different superordinate domains and it has not yet been stated precisely what a domain is, neither when one is different from another nor when exactly a domain is superordinate (Barcelona 2003: 32). The basic claims of the cognitive account of metaphor, developed by Lakoff, Johnson and Turner (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, Lakoff 1987, Lakoff and Turner 1989, Lakoff 1993), and elaborated as a more general model of 'blending' by Turner and Fauconnier can be summarised as follows (see Figure 7): (1) Metaphor is a cognitive process in which one set of concepts (a target) is understood in terms of another (a source). According to the model of blending, metaphor is a conceptual integration of four (or more) mental spaces. Mental spaces are small conceptual arrays constructed for local purposes of understanding. When a conceptual projection occurs, two input mental spaces (source and target in a metaphor) are created. These input spaces have relevant information from the respective domains, as well as additional structure from culture, context, point of view and other background information. Figure 7 Model of blending Consider the following examples: He has been swept out of her heart. The sky is crying. In the first example, swept out, which literally refers to a physical movement in which something is removed from a certain place to another, is used to refer to the meaning “ dismissing as a lover”. In the second example, the action “ crying” is transferred to another meaning as “ raining”. In both of the examples there is a transfer from a literal to a new, figurative meaning. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980) this is a metaphorical movement. Amongst the conventional metaphor given by the cognitive linguistics we find the concept EMOTION IS AS A PHYSICAL FORCE. In the view of cognitive linguistics the general metaphor EMOTION IS AS A PHYSICAL FORCE is illustrated as follows: EMOTION IS A PHYSICAL FORCE ANGER IS HEAT: He was steaming. I thought he was going to explode. Wait until you’ve cooled down. LOVE IS HEAT: She positively glowed. He gave me an icy stare. Come on baby, light my fire. LOVE IS (MAGNETIC) ATTRACTION: We’re poles apart. I keep being drawn back to her. She turns heads wherever she goes. ANXIETY IS A BURDEN: It’s been a great weight off my mind. He had been labouring under that assumption for a long time. Let me shoulder some of your worries for a while. SADNESS IS A BURDEN: It’s weighing me down. It’s the last straw (that broke the camel’s back). I keep being dragged under. On summary, many researchers have been working on giving out a definition of metaphor but there has not been a universal one yet. One broad and better definition is given by Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981). They gathered, analyzed and classified 92 definitions and 9 skeptical statements about the concept of emotion concluding that there is little consistency among definitions and many are too vague. Therefore, the researchers suggested a comprehensive definition as follows: "Emotion is a complex set of interactions among subjective and objective factors, mediated by neural/hormonal systems, which can: (a) give rise to affective experiences such as feelings of arousal, pleasure/displeasure; (b) generate cognitive processes such as emotionally relevant perceptual effects, appraisals, labeling processes; (c)activate widespread physiological adjustments to the arousing conditions; and (d) lead to behavior that is often, but not always, expressive, goal directed, and adaptive" (Kleinginna and Kleinginna 1981 p. 355). So far we have discussed the metaphorical movement in lexical level, the changes happen to words, and this is called lexical metaphor, a feature belongs to lexicon and refers to a change of meaning to a new, figurative ones. It is against the background of lexical metaphor, Michael Halliday , in the early 1980s, in his work on Systemic Functional Linguistics, introduced the notion of grammatical metaphor which we will discuss more thoroughly in the next session. 3 Grammatical Metaphor As typical examples of grammatical metaphor, Halliday considers various types of nominalization. Let us look at the following instances: The fact that he failed in the exam surprised me. His failure in the exam surprised me. In order to see why examples such as (1) is not while (2) is grammatical metaphor, in Halliday’s sense, we can take recourse to the notion of a metaphorical movement, which characterizes metaphors in general, as we have seen in the previous section. In example (2), his failure in the exam refers to a process taking place at a particular time in reality. Now, according to Halliday, processes are normally expressed by means of a conjugated verb and a number of participants taking part in the activity, with the verb and its participants together constituting a full clause. In this view, the most straightforward encoding of the process referred to in (1). What exactly is metaphorical, in an example such as (2), in Halliday’s view, is the fact that a process (a verb, fail, and its participants, He + the exam) is not realized by means of a clause, but rather by means of another type of form, such as a noun phrase, as in the example at hand. In this sense, grammatical metaphor again involves a type of metaphorical movement: from a process as clause (the default encoding of a process) to a process as noun phrase. Grammatical metaphor is thus based on the variation between something common, standard, default (i.e. a process realized as a clause) and something which is extended from that (i.e. a process realized by some other form, e.g. a noun phrase), and in this sense grammatical metaphor is similar to the traditional type of metaphor looked at above. However, in the case of grammatical metaphor, the two aspects involved in the movement or metaphorical extension no longer refer to lexemes and lexical meanings (as with lexical metaphor). Rather, they refer to grammatical forms, or grammatical means of expression, such as a clause and a nominal group. According to Halliday, grammatical metaphor is conceived as an incongruent realization of a given semantic configuration in the lexicogrammar ( 1985: 321) 4 Classification of grammatical metaphor In general, there are four kinds of grammartical metaphor: ideational (experiential), interpersonal, , logical and. textual. They occur when the usual or ‘congruent’ realization of meaning is given a ‘non congruent’ or metaphorical expression. The ideational grammatical metaphor relates to the experiential meaning, the logical metaphor to the textual meaning and the interpersonal metaphor to the interpersonal meaning. 4.1 Congruent realization of meaning SFL describes the congruent form of representing experience like this: Example 1: Congruent realization of meaning (1) He is furious because his wife has been kidnapped. In the following example we have a more incongruent form of representing reality through a grammatical metaphor: Example 2: Incongruent realization of meaning: grammatical metaphor (2) He is in a flood of anger because his wife has been kidnapped. Why consider this a metaphorical expression? The answer relies on the acceptance of the notion that the congruent form is the unmarked way we represent experience and that the alternative or marked realization is a form of metaphor. Congruent Metaphorical 1. Adjective (Qualifier) Noun (Entity) 2. Verb (Process) Noun (Entity) 3. Verb (Process) Adjective (Qualifier) 4. Adverb (Circumstance) Adjective (Qualifier) 5.Conjunction (Relator) Prepositional Phrase ( Circumstance) Table 2 - Class shift (semantic type) ( Adapted from Halliday 1995) 4.2 Logical grammatical metaphor Logical grammatical metaphor refers to the consideration of meaning in an incongruent way at the level of the organization of the discourse. The most congruent form of joining two ideas is with a conjunction but when conjunctions are realized through processes and nouns allowing for two or more clauses to become one, it is referred as a logical grammatical metaphor. In spoken medium the logico-semantic relations such as cause-effect are more commonly realized by conjunctions. This type of metaphor is called ‘ logical metaphor’ because it involves what Martin (1993) calls ‘buried reasoning’, or the metaphorical realization of the logico-semantic relations such as cause and effect that in a less metaphorical realization would be expressed by the conjunctions. This metaphorical realization of conjunctive relations by processes like ‘resulting’, ‘causing’, ‘depending’, etc. and nominal groups like ‘ classifier’, ‘qualifier’, ‘numerative’ , etc. 4. 3 Ideational grammatical metaphor The examples given in 3, which are repeated here for ease of reference, have been described as illustrating a metaphorical shift from process as clause to process as noun phrase: 1. His failure in the exam surprised me. In the systemic functional model of language, the notion of a ‘process’ belongs to the ideational metafunction: a ‘process’ is one aspect by which we represent and shape the reality we live in as human beings. In the previous section, ‘process’ has been mentioned as complementary to other ideational notions, viz. ‘entity’ and ‘quality’. With these notions in mind, the nature of the metaphors in (1) and (2) can now be further explained. We have seen above that, in Halliday’s view, a process is normally expressed by means of a clause, but it can metaphorically be expressed by means of a noun phrase. What is important is that a noun phrase is also the ‘normal’ (i.e. default, standard) expression of some other ideational type of meaning, viz. an entity. An entity is normally expressed by means of noun phrase: a table, the sun, my sister, joy, eight books. In this sense, in example (1), the form ‘noun phrase’ is borrowed to metaphorically express the meaning of a process, in the same sense as the lexica; in example (4) (repeated here) borrows the lexeme grasp to express the meaning ‘understand’: (4) He didn’t grasp it. The form of a noun phrase can be borrowed to express processes (which are normally realized by means of clauses), but it can also be used metaphorically to express qualities, which are by default encoded by adjectives. In this sense, (6) is a metaphorical variant of (5). (5) She is dishonest. (6) You cannot really count on her honesty. Another common sub-type of ideational metaphor is where a process (normally expressed by means of clause) comes to be expressed by means of an adjective, and thus, comes to be conceived of as a quality instead. Ideational metaphor is a powerful resource in the grammar of a language, by which the expression of ideational meanings such as processes, qualities and entities is extended in important ways beyond their default encodings as clauses, adjectives and nouns (or noun phrases) respectively: different forms can be borrowed to express different meanings. 4.4 .Interpersonal grammatical metaphor The main function of the ideational grammatical metaphor is to condense the information as a way to pack more lexical items in one clause at the expense of deleting the participants and time of the processes, i.e. the ideational grammatical metaphor is a more metaphorical way of expressing the meaning at the level of experience. The interpersonal grammatical metaphor, on the other hand, can be described as a metaphorical way to express interpersonal meanings that are congruently represented in mood and modality choices. The use of this kind of grammatical metaphor is especially important in language as they allow for a more explicit or implicit presence of the writer/speaker in the discourse The interpersonal component of grammar especially concerns the areas of modality and mood. In these two areas, Halliday also distinguishes between basic, non-metaphorical expressions, and metaphorical ones, i.e. inter- personal metaphors. Let us look at each area in turn. A default realization of a modal meaning, for example, a degree of certainty, according to Halliday, is by means of modal elements that occur within the clause that is being modally evaluated. For example, in order to express the likelihood of John having left already, we can use a modal verb such as must (9) and/or a modal adverb such as certainly (10): (9) John must have left (, because the lights are off). (10) John will certainly have left by now. Halliday calls these expressions of modality, which occur within the clause structure itself, the basic type. However, the same meaning of likelihood with a high degree of certainty can also be expressed by adding more elements to the initial clause John + have left. The following examples illustrate just a few possibilities: a. I think John has already left. b. It is very likely that John has already left. c. Everyone believed that John had already left. d. It is clear that John has already left. In each of the examples above, the modal meaning (i.e. a high degree of certainty that something is the case) is expressed by elements which lie outside the original clause, and which are based on particular types of verbs, such as think (a) or believe (c), or particular types of adjectives, such as likely (b) or clear (d). Halliday calls such expressions interpersonal metaphors of modality, because the modal meaning is realized outside the clause (in contrast with the standard encoding by means of modal verbs or adverbs, which lie within the clause structure). In this case, again, the metaphors are based on a borrowing: for example the verb think can be borrowed to express a modal meaning, as in example (a). The second interpersonal area in grammar, according to systemic functional linguistics, is that of mood. In order to understand the notion of interpersonal metaphors of mood, it is necessary to consider, again, what the default types of encoding are. With regard to mood, Halliday distinguishes three major types of interactive functions: statements are expressions which give information, questions are expressions which ask information, and commands are expressions which ask for something to take place. Each of these functions has its standard, default type of encoding: statements are encoded by the declarative, questions by the interrogative, and commands by the imperative, as we have seen in examples (2)–(4) above. The expression of statements and questions is fairly straightforward, but with regard to commands, the situation is different. There is a large variety of expressions that can be used to express the same command: (11) Send your proposal by email, please. (12) a. Could you send your proposal by email, please ? b. I would advise you to send it by email. c. You are kindly requested to send your proposal by email. d. It is recommended that you send your proposal by email. e. It is advisable to send your proposal by email. The examples in (11) are different metaphorical variants of expressing a command that can also be expressed, in its most straightforward, standard way, as an imperative (11). The metaphorical examples in (12) include the interrogative mood type (which is the standard expression of requests for information), and the declarative mood type (which normally, i.e. non-metaphorically, expresses the speech function of giving information). Halliday brings together these various expressions under the heading of the notion of interpersonal metaphor of mood. The reason why these examples are regarded as metaphorical, lies in the fact that they deviate from the standard, most straightforward realization of a command by means of the imperative mood. Their metaphorical nature can be made clear by pointing to the literal meanings that these expressions have. For instance, (12a), at face-value, is basically a request for information: ‘could you send your proposal by email, or couldn’t you’? Similarly, at face-value, (12b) only refers to a statement: I state that I advise something to you. The metaphorical nature of such metaphors of mood is exploited in verbal play. A case in point is the well-known dinner-table example, where someone asks: Can you pass me the salt, please?, and the addressee answers, ‘Yes, I could certainly do that’, without undertaking any further action with regard to the salt. 4.5 Textual grammatical metaphor Halliday (1994) does not include this kind of grammatical metaphor in his stydy. Martin (1992) is the only systemic scholar who deals with metaphor from the textual perspective. He states that “ grammatical metaphor affects both the ideational and textual structure of the clause since it is a tool for organizing text” ( martin in Halliday & Martin 1993: 41) He believes that textual metaphors are logically oriented – they provide source for metaphorical realization of conjunctive relations: Meta-message relation: reason, factor, pointing out ... Text reference: this Negotiating texture: let me begin by... Internal conjunction: A number of reasons, for example, as a result.... 5 Nominalization 5.1 Taking process as thing In the congruent form of realization, a process should be realized by a verb. But in the incongruent form, a process can be represented as a thing, as in: [1a] First, she reviewed how the dorsal fin evolved. [1b] There was a first review of the evolution of the dorsal fin. This kind of metaphor has three functions. First, it can turn a dynamic process into a static entity through recategorization and provides us with a different way of construing the world. Second, it can increase the information load of the nominal group by nominalizing the dynamic process and putting several epithets before the head of the nominal group, and thus succeeds in condensing the information of the clause. Third, it can blur or cover up the actor by using nominalizations. 5.2 Taking quality as thing In the congruent form, quality is realized by adjectives. But in the incongruent form, it can be represented by a noun. That means that the speaker can take quality as thing, as in:[2a] I was not hungry to be free. [2b] I was not born with a hunger to be free. In this type of metaphor, quality can appear in the form of a circumstantial element or a participant. In the meantime, the original carrier can become the epithet of a participant and its role in the clause becomes less important. 3.5.3 Taking assessment as thing In the congruent form, assessment is expressed by modal verbs or modal adverbs. But in the incongruent form, it can be expressed by a noun as in: [3a] I achieved what I could. [3b] I achieved my potential. This kind of metaphor is termed interpersonal metaphor by Halliday. Modal adverbs differ not only in meaning but also in the attitudes taken by the speaker. However, all these modal verbs are colloquial and informal in style. Comparatively speaking, their corresponding nominalizations sound more formal. This difference can result in different interpersonal meanings, which can influence the establishment and maintenance of the interpersonal relationship between the speaker and the listener and affect the fulfillment of the goal of the verbal interaction. 6 Verbalization and grammatical metaphor By definition, verbalization refers to the language phenomenon that a non-process is taken as a process. 6.1 Taking temporal relation as process Two types of temporal relation: same time and different time. To express two or more than two events that happen at different time congruently, connectives are used. But this kind of temporal relation can also been taken as process and realized by verbs, as in: [1a] She left before I arrived. [2b] Her departure preceded my arrival. To express two or more than two events that happen at the same time congruently, connectives are used. But like the different-time type, this kind of temporal relation can also been taken as process and realized by verbs, as in: [2a] The strike took place last Monday. The party conference was held at the same time.[2b] The strike was timed to coincide with the party conference. To express the same or different time, the congruent forms tend to take the temporal relation as a logical element outside of the transitivity system. The incongruent forms, however, tend to encode this relation as a dynamic process. 6.2 Taking cause-effect relation as process To express cause-effect relation in the congruent way, connectives are used. But this kind of logical meaning can also been taken as process and realized by verbs, as in:[1a] Because he was careless, a traffic accident occurred. [2b] His carelessness caused a traffic accident. 6. 3 Taking condition as process To express the meaning of condition in the congruent way, connectives are used. But in the incongruent form, this meaning can be realized by verbs as in: [1a] If you have good food, exercises and enough sleep, you will have good health. [2b] Good health depends on good food, exercises and enough sleep. 6. 4 Taking concession as process To express the meaning of concession in the congruent way, connectives are used. But in the incongruent form, verbs can be used instead as in: [1a] I felt he was wrong, although I didn't say so at the time. [2b] My silence didn't mean that I felt he was right. 7 Summary In this paper, we have considered the notion of grammatical metaphor, as it is conceived of in the systemic functional model of language founded by Halliday. We have taken as our starting point the notion of metaphor as it is traditionally known, and re-labelled this notion as ‘lexical metaphor’ because it is concerned with the words, or the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language. Grammatical metaphor, as we have seen, can be explained in relation to lexical metaphor: it is based on the same metaphorical movement, but it is rooted in the grammar of a language, and thus exploits the grammatical resources of a language. Taking into account the general organization of these resources into different large metafunctions that language serves, we have seen how Halliday distinguished between ideational metaphors, which have to do with alternative ways of construing reality, and interpersonal metaphor, which offer alternative possibilities of expressing modal meanings (metaphors of modality), or exchanging commands (metaphors of mood). We also review how logical metaphor and textual metaphor are realized by Halliday and Martin. We conclude that: Grammatical metaphor is “a principle in which meanings may be cross-coded, phenomena represented by catergories other than those that evolve to present them” ( Halliday 1994). Lexical metaphor and grammatical metaphor are not two different phenomena; they are both aspects of the metaphorical strategy by which we expand our semantic resources for construing experience. Two types of realization between grammar and semantics are referred to as congruent and metaphorical. Grammatical metaphor can be classified into logical, experiential, interpersonal and textual metaphor. Nominalization and verbalization are essential in creating grammatical metaphor. In the chapter 3 we will explore how grammatical metaphor as a linguistic resource works in the description of emotion in English poetry. In the next session we will clear the concept of emotion ,metaphor emotion, and emotion in poetry. III. EMOTION AND POETRY 1 Introduction No aspect of our mental life is more important to the quality and meaning of our existence than emotions. They are what make life worth living, or sometimes ending. So it is not surprising that most of the great classical philosophers--Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Descartes, Hobbes, Hume--had recognizable theories of emotion, conceived as responses to certain sorts of events of concern to a subject, triggering bodily changes and typically motivating characteristic behavior. What is surprising is that in much of the twentieth-century philosophers of mind and psychologists tended to neglect them--perhaps because the sheer variety of phenomena covered by the word "emotion" and its closest neighbors tends to discourage tidy theory. In recent years, however, emotions have once again become the focus of vigorous interest in philosophy, as well as in other branches of cognitive science. In view of the proliferation of increasingly fruitful exchanges between researches of different stripes, it is no longer useful to speak of the philosophy of emotion in isolation from the approaches of other disciplines, particularly psychology, neurology and evolutionary biology. While it is quite impossible to do justice to those approaches here, some sidelong glances in their direction will aim to suggest their philosophical importance. 2 Basic emotion Most emotions have an intentional structure: we shall need to say something about what that means. Psychology and more recently evolutionary biology have offered a number of theories of emotions, stressing their function in the conduct of life. Philosophers have been especially partial to cognitivist theories, emphasizing analogies either with propositional judgments or with perception. But different theories implicitly posit different ontologies of emotion, and there has been some dispute about what emotions really are, and indeed whether they are any kind of thing at all. Emotions also raise normative questions: about the extent to which they can be said to be rational, or can contribute to rationality. In that regard the question of our knowledge of our own emotions is especially problematic, as it seems they are both the object of our most immediate awareness and the most powerful source of our capacity for self-deception. This results in a particularly ambivalent relation between emotions and morality. Traditionally, the three most common axes of the definition of emotion are: expression/ behaviour, physiological arousal, and subjective experience (Izard 1990; Myers 1989; Waters 1992). The splitting of evidence of emotions into physiological arousal, expression/ behaviour, and subjective experience allows different theorists to privilege one aspect over another, and this privileging is evident in most emotion theory in one way or another. Although there has been some debate over what the necessary and sufficient components of emotion are (Lazarus 1991; Clore & Ortony 1991), most theorists admit evidence from each of these categories, despite their stance on which is more primary. In recent years, some of other theories have been developed: James-Lange" theory of emotion (1884), Cognitive approach (Robert Solomon (1980), Jerome Neu (2000), Martha Nussbaum (2001) (Marks 1982), (Broad 1971; Lyons 1980), and (Oakley 1992), perceptual approach(Nussbaum 1990, Thomas 1989). However, there has not been any of these which is universally accepted and the choice of one of these definition depends on researchers and the field they involve. In this study we would like to introduce the definition by Kleinginna (1981): "Emotion is a complex set of interactions among subjective and objective factors, mediated by neural/hormonal systems, which can: (a) give rise to affective experiences such as feelings of arousal, pleasure/displeasure; (b) generate cognitive processes such as emotionally relevant perceptual effects, appraisals, labeling processes; (c)activate widespread physiological adjustments to the arousing conditions; and (d) lead to behavior that is often, but not always, expressive, goal directed, and adaptive" (Kleinginna 1981 p. 355). In the end, let us introduce the basic emotion introduced by Ortony and Turner (1990) and reinforced by Karin Sandstrom (2006) in the table below: Chart 4 : Basic emotion by Karin Sandstrom (2006) (Source: Linguistics in the Midnight Sun, report No 3) There is a notice that Karin has added fear as the sixth element of emotion in comparison with five ones by Ortony and Johnson ( sadness, happiness, love, anger, hate) 3 Emotion metaphor Before we continue, let us not forget that: “One of the major functions of metaphor is to express emotion” (Goatly 1997: 158). Emotion metaphors form an extensive group in the taxonomy of metaphors. The table below can summarize the conventional emotion metaphor. ( See next page) Metaphor +HAPPY-AS-UP+ ex. Myspiritsrose foremotions metaphor Metaphor for Metaphor for +ANGER-AS-BURDEN+ ex. He carries hisanger around with him. aspects of anger anger +ANGER-AS-DANGEROUS-ANIMAL+ ex. He unleashed hisanger. +ANGER-AS-FIRE+ex. What you said inflamed him. +ANGER-AS-HOT-CONTAINED-FLUID+ ex. You make myblood boil. +ANGER-AS-OPPONENT+ ex. I’ve been wrestlingwith myanger. +ANGER-AS-STORM+ ex. He thunderedwith rage. cause of anger +CAUSING-ANGER-AS-TRESPASSING+ ex. Leave mealone! Metaphor for Metaphor for +LUST-AS-HEAT+ex. She is an oldflame. aspects of aspects of +LUST-AS-HUNGER+ ex. Sheis quite adish. romanticlove sexualdesire +LUST-AS-INSANITY+ ex. I’m crazy in love with her. +LUST-AS-WAR+ ex. He’s known for his conquests. +LUSTFUL-PERSON-AS-ANIMAL+ ex.He’s a realstud. +SEXUALITY-AS-A-PHYSICAL-FORCE+ ex. We were drawn toeach other. Metaphor for +LOVE-AS-PATIENT+ ex. Theyhavea strong, healthy marriage. love +LOVE-AS-PHYSICAL-FORCE+ ex. His wholelife revolves around her. +LOVE-AS-BOND+ ex. There issomething between them. +LOVE-AS-CAPTIVE-ANIMAL+ ex. She letgo of herfeelings. +LOVE-AS-COMMODITY+ ex. I gaveher all mylove. +LOVE-AS-FIRE+ ex.My heart’son fire. +LOVE-AS-FLUID-IN-CONTAINER+ ex. Shewasfilledwithlove. +LOVE-AS-HIDDEN-OBJECT+ ex. You’reluckyto have found her. +LOVE-AS-INSANITY+ ex. I’m crazy about her. +LOVE-AS-JOURNEY+ ex. I don’tthink this relationshipis going anywhere. +LOVE-AS-MAGIC+ex.She is bewitching. +LOVE-AS-NATURAL-FORCE+ ex.She sweptme off myfeet. +LOVE-AS-NUTRIENT+ ex. She’sstarvedfor affection. +LOVE-AS-OPPONENT+ex. She wasovercome by love. +LOVE-AS-RAPTURE+ ex. I amgiddy with love. +LOVE-AS-UNITY+ ex. Wewere made foreach other. +LOVE-AS-WAR+ ex.Hemade anally of hermother. Metaphor for +BELOVED-AS-APPETIZING-FOOD+ ex. Honey, you look great today! lovers +BELOVED-AS-DEITY+ ex. He worshipsthe ground she walkson. +BELOVED-AS-VALUABLE-OBJECT+ ex. We have toleave now,my dear. +LOVERS-AS-DOVES+ ex. It was alllovey-dovey. Metaphor for +BODY-AS-CONTAINER-FOR-EMOTIONS+ ex. He wasfilledwith anger. emotion +EMOTIONAL-EFFECT-AS-PHYSICAL-CONTACT+ ex. I was struckbyhis sincerity. in general +EMOTION-AS-BOUNDED-SPACE+ ex. She flewinto arage. +EYES-AS-CONTAINERS-FOR-EMOTIONS+ex.Love showedin hereyes. Metaphor for +DIGNITY-AS-OBJECT+ ex. He preserved his dignity. varieties of pride Metaphor for +CONCEIT-AS-OPPONENT+ ex. He was completely overcome by conceit. conceit +CONCEITED-PERSON-AS-BIG+ ex. He’s bigasyou please. +CONCEITED-PERSON-AS-HIGH+ ex. You don’t have tobe sostuck-up! pride perform. +PRIDE-AS-FLUID-IN-HEART+ex. Her heart swelled with pride. +PRIDE-AS-OBJECT+ ex.He losthisprideandbegan to imploreher. +PRIDE-AS-PERSON+ ex.His criticism hurt her pride. Metaphor for +VANITY-AS-INFLATED-OBJECT+ ex.Her vanity has been punctured. Vanity +VANITY-AS-SENSUAL-PERSON+ ex. What you said wounded his vanity. +SELF-ESTEEM-AS-ECONOMIC-VALUE+ex.She values herself highly. +SAD-AS-DOWN+ ex. He’s reallylow these days. Metaphor List 1 : Emotion metaphor by Karin Sandstrom (2006) (Source: Linguistics in the Midnight Sun, report No 3) ( Refer to page 17 for more information) 4. Metaphor in poetry The use of metaphor in poetry is one of the most important aspects of poetic style that must be mastered. Metaphor can be described as figure of speech in which a thing is referred to as being something that it resembles. For example, a fierce person can be referred to as a tiger. Another example of a metaphor would be the description of a person who was uncommunicative as being as "silent as stone". The word stone is an image that is used to explain the intense silence of the person. In this way, metaphors are used in poetry to explain and elucidate emotions, feelings, relationships other elements that could not to described in ordinary language. Poets also use metaphor as a way of explaining or referring to something in a brief but effective way. Metaphor works on many levels in poetry. The best way to show how a metaphor function is to study the use of metaphor in description of emotion as stated in chapter V 5 Summary emotions are typically conscious phenomena; yet they typically involve more pervasive bodily manifestations than other conscious states; they vary along a number of dimensions: intensity, type and range of intentional objects, etc. they are reputed to be antagonists of rationality; but also they play an indispensable role in determining the quality of life; they contribute crucially to defining our ends and priorities; they play a crucial role in the regulation of social life; they protect us from an excessively slavish devotion to narrow conceptions of rationality; they have a central place in poetry. Metaphor is one charactistics of the language in poetry. CHAPTER 2 : THE STUDY In this chapter the procedure in which the study was carried out is reported in details and the results are revealed. 1. Research questions 1. How is metaphor used in Shakespeare’s sonnets in description of emotion? 2. Data collection A total 154 Shakespeare’s sonnets ( collected from ) were sampled for the study. Since the study involves in exploring the use of grammatical metaphor in description of emotions in poetic discourse, six topics related to six basic emotions were chosen: happiness, anger, disgust, sadness, fear, love. The selected sonnets are: 13,14, 29, 30, 73, 129, 150, 147, 151, 154. The selection is based on the following reasons: Firstly,we chose Shakespeare’s work as the main resource of data because of his popularity in English literature. Secondly, we chose his sonnets because of their suitable length and language for a thesis. Shakespeare’s sonnets or simply The Sonnets, is a collection of poems in sonnet form written by William Shakespeare that deal with such themes as love, beauty, politics, and mortality. They were probably written over a period of several years. All 154 poems appeared in a 1609 collection, comprising 152 previously unpublished sonnets and two poems, numbers 138 ("When my love swears that she is made of truth") and 144 ("Two loves have I, of comfort and despair"), that had previously been published in a 1599 miscellany entitled The Passionate Pilgrim. The first 17 sonnets are written to a young man, urging him to marry and have children, thereby passing down his beauty to the next generation. These are called the procreation sonnets. Most of them, however, 18-126, are addressed to a young man expressing the poet's love for him. Sonnets 127-152 are written to the poet's mistress expressing his love for her. The final two sonnets, 153-154, are allegorical. The final thirty or so sonnets are written about a number of issues, such as the young man's infidelity with the poet's mistress, self-resolution to control his own lust, beleaguered criticism of the world, etc. In short, there are four sub- groups of sonnets which are categorized according to topics and time. Our sampling sonnets are drawn from all the subgroups of all the time in hope that can represent the features of Shakespeare’s sonnets. The sonnets are chosen in two ways: randomly and by their popularity over the others. As a result, we can insure the diversity of our data. Thirdly, the language of the sonnets is of the 16th century which is quite near to contemporary English now. Thus, it is authentic and reliable for a linguistic study. 3. Data analysis framework Just as natural languages embody in their grammar a theory of experience, poetic language, as a figurative picture of the real world, reconstrues certain aspects or components of human experience. However, in opening them up to be observed, investigated and explained, it does so in a different way. The content of verse, no less than human feelings, is somewhat different from what we say every day. However, when we examine the grammatical patterns in which the feelings are construed, it is clear that they involved from the grammar of natural language. I will illustrate this with an example. The following expression: He kissed her passionately in public so that her cheeks blushed completely. is a sequence of figures realized by a clause complex and it is diagrammatically represented as in the figure below: Relator Figures: He kissed her passionately in public so that her cheeks blushed completely. Elements: He was kissing Her passionately [Participant] [process] [participant] [circumstance] This clause complex can be grammatically transformed into: His passionate kiss in public resulted in her complete blushing. It is clear that between the two there is a highly complex relation of grammatical metaphor because a number of transformations have taken place simultaneously: he/his, kissed/ kissing, she/her, completely/complete, blushed/blushing, so/ resulted in. We here adopted the table of class shift by Halliday ( 1999: 247) which is used for scientific language. We used it as a guideline to examine figurative language used in verses. Table 3 Types of grammatical metaphor in scientific discourse ( From Halliday and Matthiessen 1999: 247) No congruent Semantic type Metaphorical Class shift example 1 Quality Thing Adjective-noun Lovely- loveliness 2i 2ii 2iii Process Event of process Aspect of phase of process Modality of process Verb-noun Tense/phase verb (adverb)-noun Modality verb (adverb)-noun Determine-determination Going to – try Can,could– possibility/ potential 3 Circumstance Thing Preposition-noun With - accompaniment 4 Relator Thing Conjunction-noun So- cause, proof If- conditions 5i Process Event of process Aspect of phase of process Modality of process Quality Verb-noun Tense/phase verb (adverb)-noun Modality verb (adverb)-noun is increasing – increasing begin – initial [always]- constant 6i 6ii 6iii Circumstance Manner Time, place, ect. Time, place, etc Quality Class Adverb-adjective Prepositional phrase- adjective Pre. Phrase – noun premodifier Brilliantly - brilliant For a long time – lengthy Love at the first sight - fisrt sight love 7 Relator Quality Conjunction- adjective Before - previous 8 Circumstance Time, place, etc Process Be/go+preposition-verb Be about - concern; be instead of - repalce 9 Relator Process Conjunction –verb and - complement; then - follows; so - lead to 10 Relator Circumstance Conjunction-prep. when - in times of; so - as a result 11 0 Thing 0 - noun [x] - the fact of [x] 12 0 Process 0-verb [x] - [x] occurs 13 Thing Modifier ( of thing) Noun- [various] women's pleasure, On studying the table we realized that: thing relator circumstance process quality The ordering is as follows: Relator – circumstance – process – quality - thing 1 2 3 4 5 13 6 7 8 9 10 Figure 7 Direction of metaphorization ( Halliday & Matthiessen 1999:264) 4. Data analysis procedure 4.1 Results A summary of types of metaphor used in our data is shown in the table blow: Table 4 Types of metaphor in Shakespeare’ sonnets Types of metaphor Sonnets 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 2i 5i /5ii XIII 1 3 1 1 XIV 2 3 10 XIX 4 2 1 10 XXIX 3 4 XXX 1 10 LXXIII 1 5 CXXIX 2 1 2 CXLVII 1 1 CL 3 2 3 CLIV 4 Number Total 7 19 5 1 49 8.64% 23.475 % 6.17% 1.23% 60.49% The above results can be displayed in a chart as follows: Chart 5: Types of grammatical metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets By studying the results we can conclude that the major type of metaphor used in our data is type 13 ( thing →various), the second biggest is type 2 ( process → thing) and then comes type 1 ( quality →thing) , 5 ( process → quality) and the least is type 9 ( relator →quality). Type 3 ( circumstance →thing ), 4 ( relator →thing) , 6 ( circumstance → quality) ,7 ( relator →quality ), 8 ( circumstance →process), 10 ( relator →process), 11 ( 0 → thing), 12 ( 0 →process ) did not appear in our data. When regarding to emotion described we have drawn the following table: Table 5: Emotion metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets Emotion Love/ derise Sadness Anger Disgust/ Hate Fear Joy/ happiness Number 41 28 0 0 0 2 Percentage 58 % 39% 3% The results are shown in the following chart: Chart 6: Emotion metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets The biggest portion is love and then comes sadness and happy. We have found no grammatical metaphor in description of emotions such as anger, fear, disgust. 4. 2 Discussion 4.2.1 Nominalization in English poetic discourse 4.2.1.1 Taking process as thing In the congruent form of realization, a process should be realized by a verb. But in the incongruent form, a process can be represented as a thing, as in: That thou among the wastes of time must go,Since sweets and beauties do themselves forsake ( Sonnet number XII) 4.2.1.2 Taking quality as thing In the congruent form, quality is realized by adjectives. But in the incongruent form, it can be represented by a noun. That means that the speaker can take quality as thing, as in: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,And summer's lease hath all too short a date:Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,( Sonnet number XIX) In this type of metaphor, quality can appear in the form of a circumstantial element or a participant. In the meantime, the original carrier can become the epithet of a participant and its role in the clause becomes less important. In short, nominalization plays a key role in generation of grammatical metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets. 4.2.2 Syntax in poetic discourse Syntax - the organization of words, phrases and clauses, i.e. the word order. Finding the right syntax for a poem is like finding the right light before you take a photograph. If the order of the words is "wrong," the emotional, psychological, and/or spiritual impact of the words will be lost. After reading the example below you will "feel" the impact of the "right order." Syntax examples: "wrong" order "right" order "At fourteen I married My Lord, you." "I married you, My Lord, at fourteen." "Thirty-five years I lived with my husband." "I lived with my husband for thirty-five years" (William Carlos Williams). We have found the same ‘wrong’ order in our data: - O! from what power hast thou this powerful might,With insufficiency my heart to sway? - My love is as a fever, longing still - A woman's face with nature's own hand painted, Hast thou, the master mistress of my passion; 4.2.3. Syntagmatic Complexity: Syndromes of elemental metaphor * Lower rank syndrome (figure reconstrued as if elements ( a figure, congruently construed as a clause, is instead reworded as a nominal group, which congruently construed as element) This happens in type 1 (quality → thing) and type 2 ( process → thing or in other words ( the nominalization of qualities and process respectively) and type 13 ( thing →various). Other kinds of metaphor may also be involved in these lower rank syndrome. heaven gate 2i gate of heaven at break of day 2i 13 when the day breaks shifting change 5 change is shifting men’s art 13 the art of men * Higher rank syndrome: sequences reconstrued as if figures ( a sequence, congruently construed as a clause complex, is instead reworded as a clause, which congruently construed as a figure) We can find this in the following examples: ….A woman's gentle heart, but not acquainted 13 9 with shifting change, as is false women's fashion… 5i 13 …Wishing me like to one more rich in hope,Featured like him, like him with friends possessed,… 5. Summary This chapter has been an attempt to clarify the role of grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse. We have begun by noticing some characteristics of poetic discourse and finished by analyzing some illustration taken from English poetic discourse in comparison with the results found by Halliday and Matthiessen (1999) in the role of metaphor in scientific discourse. We have concluded that: The most pervasive types of grammatical metaphor listed in table 5.2 are types 1, type 2 and type 13: quality → thing , process → thing and thing → various and the occurrence of types 13 are due to the driving force of type 1 or type 2. Syntagmatically, the grammatical structure is usually incomplete: “But since she prick'd thee out for women's pleasure, Mine be thy love and thy love's use their treasure.” Surprisingly, nominalization plays a key role in creating grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse. PART III APPLICATION 1 Summary of the major findings In this research paper we have been able to reach the following achievements. (i) In examining the use of grammatical metaphor in English poetic discourse, the followings findings can be stated: - Nominalization plays a key role in generating a grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse. - The most pervasive types of grammatical metaphor listed in table 5 are types 1, type 2 and type 13: quality → thing , process → thing and thing → various and the occurrence of types 13 are due to the driving force of type 1 or type 2. - There is the appearance of the ‘wrong order’ when considering the syntax of the verves. - There is similarity in lower rank and higher rank syndromes when compared to which expressed by Halliday ( 1990) about grammatical metaphor in scientific discourse. - Grammatical metaphor is used mostly to describe love and some aspects of love like happiness, sadness. Emotions like fear, disgust, anger are not subjects of interest in Shakespeare’s sonnets. 2 Implications of the study 2. 1 To teachers and students A conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that metaphorical structures yield a denseness of meaning that more congruent structures typically dilute. In many cases you may face that fact that the message conveyed cannot be encoded in any other way than metaphorical wording. Metaphor , however, is not easy to use and interpret. People find it difficult in facing with metaphor. There is a fact that it is not an easy task to decide a wording metaphorical or not let alone to understand it. Nevertheless, knowledge of metaphor helps students a great deal in understanding and providing written task. Therefore, we suggest that metaphor should be taken into account in developing writing and reading materials for students. 2.2 To translators One of the most important issues in the translation of poetry concerns the nature of poetry and of the language it uses. Jean Boase-Beier will argue that it makes more sense to speak of poetic LANGUAGE, rather than of poetic TEXTS. Poetic language can be defined by a particular set of characteristics, and the way these are used, but not by the place of its occurrence, which may be in texts traditionally considered non-literary, as well as in poems. Understanding a poem is a prerequisite for translating it, and understanding a poem involves identifying and analysing the characteristics of poetic language, which make up what we call the 'style' of a poem. Stylistics, as the study of style, thus plays a major part in the translation of any text which contains poetic language. Style is defined, not as form (or the "way something is said"), but as the link between form and meaning. Stylistic features of texts are devices such as metaphor, repetition, iconicity and ambiguity. Many people think the translation of poetry is impossible, but this is not the case. A translation which takes stylistic devices into account stands a good chance of success. 3 Suggestions for further studies This study is centered on the use of metaphor in description of emotion in English poetic discourse. Thus, it is limited in the field of poetic discourse. Much of our effort has been made to analyze instances in Shakespeare’ sonnets. Therefore, further study of the topic, if possible, should cover a broader and more temporary range of poetic discourse. Beside researches on other genres such as funny stories, advertising would be of great value. 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