Bài giảng Human Development - Chapter 3 Methods For Studying Development

3-1Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human DevelopmentChapter 3Methods For Studying DevelopmentMethods follow on from theoretical viewTheoretical frameworks are like lensesEach one giving a different perspective on the worldWith its unique interpretationsCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-2Theories may have different basic assumptionsOntology refers to the nature of what can be knownEpistemology refers to what is it possible to know, given the limitations of what our measuring tools areDevelopmental theorists rely on empirical (real-world) knowledge, such as learning through observationCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-3Scientific methodThe 'classic' means of doing researchObservation is used to find objective factsInformation is gathered in a systematic wayFindings of the research must be verifiable (able to be questioned by others and tested for accuracy)Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-4Research studies collect information (‘data’)Types of data:QuantitativeQualitativeData are analysed to look for patternsThe ‘findings’ of a study are based on interpretations of the dataCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-5Key aspects of researchReliabilityAre the findings replicable (repeatable)?Would other researchers get the same results?ValidityAre the findings truthful and accurate?Do the findings really mean something?GeneralisabilityDo the findings apply to a wider group than the participants in the study (e.g. to similar children or adults)?Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-6Importance of culture in research designDoes the research describe the cultural setting from an insider's viewpoint (the‘emic’ approach)?Or from an ‘objective’ point of view imagined to be outside culture (‘etic’ approach)?Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-7Developmental research designs (plans)Schaie's (1965) three developmental factors:Age of participantsCohort (a group of people of similar age at a particular time in history, such as Baby Boomers)Time in history in which study is carried out (e.g. 2010)Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-8Research design: unfoldings or snapshots?Longitudinal studies follow people over time to see how behaviours or understandings of people unfold across timeExamples: Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health & Development Study of over 1,000 children from birth to young adulthood‘Does children's aggressive play change as they grow older?’Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-9Research design (cont.)Cross-sectional studies compare two or more age groups at one point in time to give a snapshot of behaviours or understandings of people at different agesExample: ‘Do older children play more or less aggressively than younger children?’Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-10How to choose between popular research methodsResearch designs are carefully planned after researchers have clarified the key questions that the research is designed to answerThe particular question the researcher wants to answer will guide them to the method appropriate to answer itCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-11Scientific experimentsTerms in the research question are operationalisede.g. ‘happiness’ could be defined as the number of smiles a person made in a 10-minute periodThe researcher manipulated a key factor (the independent variable) to see its effects on some measure (the dependent variable)The independent variable may be designed as a comparison of an experimental group given a treatment and a control group not given the treatment being studiedTo make a fair comparison, people would be assigned to the groups randomly (without bias)e.g. testing the effects of diet (with eating baked beans or not as the independent variable) on lifting weights (kilograms lifted as the dependent variable)Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-12Scientific experiments (cont.)Observation is used to find objective factsInformation is gathered in a systematic wayFindings of the research must be verifiable (able to be questioned by others and tested for their accuracy)Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-13Observation of behaviourPrecise, detailed recording of what the researcher sees and hears while viewing participantsTypes of qualitative observationsAnecdotal recordingDetailed informal notes on eventsMay focus on several people in contextMore formal notes are called fieldnotesRunning RecordsContinuous notes on a particular person (usually a child) in a period of timeExample: Following a particular child around on their first trip to the zoo to see how they react to various situationsCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-14More targeted observationsTime sampling:Observations carried out during set intervals of time (e.g. 3-minute segments)Segments are randomly sprinkled through observation periodOccurrences of concrete actions are notedCoded ObservationsBehaviours are described as simple categoriese.g. various supportive acts might be noted by the code ‘helping’ Frequencies are noted for each code in the time period under studyEvent RecordingFocus is on a particular kind of event (e.g. bullying)Entire event is described by the observerCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-15Written questions and oral interviewsInterviewsConversation guided by questions created by researcher beforehandQuestions can be: Structured (formal, pre-determined) Semi-structured (partially set ahead of time for all participants) orUnstructured (only the general focus of the question is the same for all participants)Kanohi ki te kanohi (face to face) Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-16Questionnaires and scalesList of written questions that participants fill inExample: NZ Census formScaled testsMore formal than a questionnaireCreated by researchers based on study of participants for purpose of identifying likely responses ahead of timeExample: Progressive Achievement Tests (PATs)Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-17In-depth qualitative researchCase StudyFocus on one person, family, group or situationMixed methods used to describe the 'case'Examples: interviews, observationsEthnographyWriting (graph) of a culture (ethnos)Very detailed picture of experience of an entire group of people in a setting at particular timeExample: study of a school's cultureCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-18Research for positive changeAction ResearchResearch planned with participantsResults of research are fed back to participants to help change practiceExample: A teacher examines an anti-bullying programme, reflecting on findings in order to make future changeCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-19Considering inclusive research methodsTreating people as participants in research, rather than objects of researchConsidering insiders' studies of their own experiencesExample: Indigenous research carried out by indigenous researchersImportance of the ethical grounding of all researchUniversity research is vetted by ethics committees that consider benefits and potential harm to participantsResearchers are accountable for their research practicesCopyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development3-20