Bài giảng Human Development 2e - Chapter 3 Methods For Studying Development

Chapter 3Methods for studying developmentLinks between theories and methodsTheoretical frameworks are like lenses:each one giving a different perspective on the worldeach one with its unique interpretations.Theories may have different basic assumptionsOntology refers to the nature of what can be known.Epistemology refers to what is it possible to know, given the limitations of what our measuring tools are.Developmental theorists rely on empirical (real-world) knowledge, such as learning through observation.Scientific methodThe scientific method is the 'classic' means of doing research.Observation is used to find objective facts.Information is gathered in a systematic way.Findings of the research must be verifiable (able to be questioned by others and tested for accuracy).Research methods used in developmental studiesTypes of dataQuantitativeQualitativeData are analysed to look for patterns.The 'findings' of a study are based on interpretations of the data.Key aspects of researchReliabilityAre the findings replicable (repeatable)?Would other researchers get the same results?ValidityAre the findings truthful and accurate?Do the findings really mean something?GeneralisabilityDo the findings apply to a wider group than the participants in the study (e.g. to similar children or adults)?Importance of culture in research designDoes the research describe the cultural setting from an insider's viewpoint ('emic' approach)?Or from an 'objective' point of view imagined to be outside culture ('etic' approach)?Developmental research designs (plans)Schaie's (1965) three developmental factorsAge of participantsCohort (a group of people of similar age at a particular time in history, such as baby boomers)Time in history in which study is carried out (e.g. 2010)Research design: unfoldings or snapshots?Longitudinal studies follow people over time to see how behaviours or understandings of people unfold across time.Examples: Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study of over 1000 children from birth to young adulthood'Does children's aggressive play change as they grow older?'Research design (cont.)Cross-sectional studies compare two or more age groups at one point in time to give a snapshot of behaviours or understandings of people at different ages.Example: 'Do older children play more or less aggressively than younger children?'Choosing between popular methodsResearch designs are carefully planned after researchers have clarified the key questions that the research is designed to answer.The particular question the researcher wants to answer will guide them to the method appropriate to answer it.Scientific experimentsTerms in the research question are operationalised.Example: 'happiness' could be defined as the number of smiles a person made in a 10-minute period.The researcher manipulates a key factor (the independent variable) to see its effects on some measure (the dependent variable).The independent variable may be designed as a comparison of an experimental group given a treatment and a control group not given the treatment being studied.To make a fair comparison, people would be assigned to the groups randomly (without bias).Example: testing the effects of diet (with eating baked beans or not as the independent variable) on lifting weights (kilograms lifted as the dependent variable).Scientific experiments (cont.)Observation is used to find objective facts.Information is gathered in a systematic way.Findings of the research must be verifiable (able to be questioned by others and tested for their accuracy).Observation of behaviourThis is the precise, detailed recording of what the researcher sees and hears while viewing participants.Types of qualitative observationsAnecdotal recordingDetailed informal notes on eventsMay focus on several people in contextMore formal notes are called fieldnotesExample: keeping a record of the way children new to a class settle in to the routines, describing activities in play areasRunning recordsContinuous notes on a particular person (usually a child) in a period of timeExample: following a particular child around on their first trip to the zoo to see how they react to various situationsMore targeted observationsTime samplingThis involves observations carried out during set intervals of time (e.g. 3-minute segments).Segments are randomly sprinkled through the observation period.Occurrences of concrete actions are noted.Coded observationsBehaviours are described as simple categories.Example: various supportive acts noted by the code 'helping'Frequencies are noted for each code in the time period under study.Event recordingThe focus is on a particular kind of event (e.g. bullying).The entire event is described by the observer. InterviewsInterviews are conversations guided by questions created by researcher beforehand.Questions can be: structured (formal, predetermined) semi-structured (partially set ahead of time for all participants)unstructured (only the general focus of the question is the same for all participants).Kanohi ki te kanohi (face to face) Questionnaires and scalesQuestionnaires are lists of written questions that participants fill in.Example: New Zealand Census formScaled tests are:more formal than a questionnairecreated by researchers based on study of participants for purpose of identifying likely responses ahead of time.Example: Progressive Achievement Tests (PATs)More detailed studies of people and settingsCase studyThe focus is on one person, family, group or situation.Mixed methods are used to describe the 'case'.Examples: interviews, observationsEthnographyThis refers to the writing (graph) of a culture (ethnos).It is a very detailed picture of experience of an entire group of people in a setting at particular time.Example: study of a school's cultureResearch that aims to create positive changeAction researchThe research is planned with participants.The results are fed back to participants to help change practice.Example: teacher examines anti-bullying program, reflecting on findings in order to make future changeInclusive research methodsThis type of research includes:treating people as participants in research, rather than objects of researchconsidering insiders' studies of their own experiencesconducting research in culturally appropriate ways.The ethical grounding of all research is important.Researchers are accountable for their research practices.