Bài giảng Human Development 2e - Chapter 10 The lives of adults at mid-Life

Chapter 10The lives of adults at mid-lifeDefining mid-life: historical and developmental questionsWhat ages encompasss mid-life?Roughly mid-30s to around 60No clear beginning or endCohorts have different life experiences.Baby boomersLarge post-WW II populationNew Zealand born 1946–72Diversity in adult livesAge of having a child or losing a parent will differ across people.Developmental questionsThere is no one universal plan for every person's development.'Stages' are very difficult to define for adults.Erikson's theory focuses on development through the life span, while Piaget and Freud stop at physiological maturity.US-based research (e.g. Levinson 1978, 1996) has a social and cultural context that may not be so relevant in New Zealand.Discourses about middle adulthoodThere are various discourses about mid-life:Middle age—its all downhill from here—there is an emphasis on the ageing process. The prime of life—mid-life is the time of peak performance and power.The mid-life crisis—the adult is facing challenges and confronting ageing.Physiological changes at mid-lifeAgeing begins from the moment you're born!Some common markers of ageing at mid-life are:grey hair, skin changeseyes having less flexible focus and requiring more light.Changes require adaptations in behaviour, e.g. extra care when driving at night.MenopauseMenopauseFinal cessation of menstruation in womenAverage age is 52 in New Zealand (Mackenzie, 1984)Peri-menopause: gradual process before cessationEnd of child-bearing years may signal sadness (Bart, 1972) or relief (Rubin, 1979) for women.Male menopause? There is little evidence for this, as male hormones decline gradually over time.Cultures differ greatly in their interest in physiological changes at mid-life.Diversity in adult livesErik Erikson's theoryCrisis for mid-lifers: generativity vs stagnationKotré's (1984) extension of Erikson's views on generativityBiological and parental generativity may differ.Work generativity may involve mentoring.Cultural generativity could help whole communities, e.g. whānau, hapū and iwi development.Psychological challenges at mid-life Levinson (1978) suggested that people at mid-life have doubts about their path in life in their 30s/40s and may undergo a transition to change direction.There are doubts today about how usual such transitions are.Each cohort may experience different socio-political pressures at this age.In New Zealand, current mid-lifers may have worries about saving for later years.WhereasPrevious generations relied on New Zealand Superannuation.Expanding work and education during mid-lifeThere is a longer life span today than 100 years ago. Many people are healthier and fitter than previous generations at the same age.Changed social policies mean retirement is seldom compulsory (e.g. at age 60 or 65).Adults may have periods of paid work and periods without paid work throughout mid-life.Economic pressures differ by generation: current mid-lifers struggle with a troubled world economy, fewer jobs. Cognitive development and learning in adulthoodIntelligence and mental reasoning are composed of many skills.Some of these may decline as adults age. Earlier cross-sectional studies gave the misleading view that mental ability declines with age.Longitudinal studies have shown less decline over age.Wisdom may increase over age.Wisdom is seen as the ability to think through problems, reflect on experience and make realistic judgments.EducationFormal education ends with compulsory schooling or tertiary education study at universities, polytechnics or whare wānanga.Adults may:continue to have professional development in their jobsattend adult education classes experience learning in the community or over the internet.There has been increased participation by New Zealanders over age 40 in tertiary education.Patterns of work in mid-lifeThere is changing patterns of working lives of women and men in recent years.Women's involvement in paid work has increased in the past 50+ years.Due to family responsibilities, women are less likely to work full time than men.Women (age 15+) are still paid less than men.The economic recession has led to full-time employment decreasing more for men than women.Economic pressures in mid-lifeMid-life is becoming the most difficult period in the life span due to life cycle pressures.Some pressures are socio-political.Mid-lifers may find that their jobs are under threat in certain economic environments.This generation are facing a longer life amid unpredictability of new economic structures.Family connections at mid-lifeFamilies are smaller than 50 years ago.Later child-bearing means mothers aged 30 to early 40s starting a family are no longer unusual.Birth rates are higher for Māori and Pacific women, than for Pākehā women.Committed couples Nowadays there is an increase in successive committed relationships (serial monogamy).This may be a response to a greatly expanded life expectancy. Family connections at mid-lifeSeparation and dissolution of relationships (or divorce)Among those married in 1976,one in three marriages ended in divorce.The divorce rate has fallen in the last decade because people are marrying and divorcing later in life.Being single and single-parentingBeing single is increasingly common for New Zealand adults.Many adults never live with a partner.Being single without children offers varieties of possibilities in lifestyle (e.g. flatting).One-person homes are the fastest growing household type and will double by 2021.During this period people are also choosing to form new relationships.Single parenting: the smallest child-rearing unitThis type of parenting is likely to generate stress for the parent and child (e.g. public disapproval, financial challenges).Intergenerational effectsLatecomers (parents over 35) are less likely to become grandparents (Yarrow, 1991).Parents' life experiences are influenced by the ages of their children.As parents reach 40 to 50 years of age, their children may be reaching adolescence and leaving home.Parents may be called upon to pay for tertiary education, which can lead to stress.Caring for parents and childrenThe adult at mid-life could experience a shift in their relationship with their own parent/s.The mid-life child may have to care for their own parent/s.Mid-lifers are called the sandwich generation.Support own their children and care for their parents